Heboh !!! Dapat duit hanya dengan online

Pernahkah anda membayangkan bahwa ketika anda online, anda sudah dibayar per bulan $45, dan yang paling hebatnya anda tidak disuruh untuk melakukan apa apa. Hanya hidupkan komputer dan koneksikan komputer anda dengan internet, dan Gomezpeerzone akan segera menghitung setiap dolar yang anda kumpulkan...

Well, anda mungkin pasti berkata tidak mungkin karena mana ada yang mau membayar hanya dengan online saja, dan inilah buktinya :

ini saya dapatkan dari sahabat blogger saya hilmifirdaus di hilmifirdaus.com dimana dia pun awalnya tidak percaya namun sudah 4 bulan dia mendapatkan uangnya dari Gomezpeerzone.

Masih belum percaya, silahkan anda telusuri di Google atau Search Engine lainnya dengan kata kunci "Apakah Gomezpeerzone scam(penipu)" atau "Bukti Transaksi Pembayaran Gomezpeerzone" dan anda akan mendapatkan jawabannya.

Atau anda mau lihat fb atau twitternya dulu, ne ane kasi alamatnya :

https://www.facebook.com/gomezpeerzone

http://twitter.com/gomez_peer

Tunggu apa lagi??????

Silahkan uji coba, langsung daftar aja ya..

Langsung klik aja di sini

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A guide to English pronunciation

Learners often neglect their pronunciation. They think that if they can communicate in English with other students in their class, they will be able to talk with native speakers too. They only realize they were wrong when they go to an English-speaking country and discover that people can't understand them!

In my opinion, pronunciation is one of the most important language skills. You may be proficient at grammar and have a huge vocabulary, but if you pronounce words wrongly, you just won't get understood. And even if you speak in an understandable way, you still have to work on your pronunciation. It's the first thing people notice about your English when you talk to them. They will judge you by the way you speak. If your accent is pleasant, they will enjoy talking to you.

Studying pronunciation will also help you understand English better. If you know how different words are pronounced, you will understand more.

Read Why you should learn English pronunciation on Antimoon.

How to study pronunciation?

English pronunciation can be tricky. For example, the pronunciation of the word put is /put/ (click on the transcription to listen to a recording of the word). But other words which contain these three letters can be pronounced differently! For example, putty (a soft whitish substance used to fix glass into window frames) is pronounced /'p^ti/. The spelling of a word doesn't tell you how to pronounce it. How to learn pronunciation then? Read my advice below.

Learn the phonetic alphabet

Most good dictionaries give you phonetic transcriptions of words. They tell you how the words are pronounced using symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet to represent sounds. Have a look at this entry from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English:

How to decipher the transcription of the word cargo in the picture above? The first thing to notice is that there are actually two transcriptions. The first one is the British pronunciation and the second one is the American pronunciation.

A lot of words are pronounced differently in British English and in American English. You have to choose the kind of pronunciation you like most and stick to it.

To understand the symbols used in the transcriptions, download and print this pronunciation table: Phonetic alphabets reference. If you are not sure about the pronunciation of the words in the chart, you can have a look at the version with audio recordings: The sounds of English and the International Phonetic Alphabet.

It's also a good idea to learn the ASCII phonetic alphabet. It helps you type the strange symbols from the IPA using the characters on your keyboard. The transcription of the word dictionary in IPA looks like this:

Using the ASCII phonetic alphabet you can easily key in the transcription:

/'dikS..n..ri/

To remember the correct pronunciation of words, you can use a computer program like SuperMemo.

Dictionaries with audio recordings

If you use a computer dictionary (and I highly recommend you do), choose one that gives you both phonetic transcriptions and audio recordings. Each time you look up a word, read its phonetic transcription. Then listen to the recording and try to imitate it.

BTW, some people argue that they don't need to learn the phonetic alphabet, since they use a computer dictionary with audio recordings. But the problem is that you can't always hear everything perfectly. Phonetic transcriptions show you clearly the sounds used in a particular word. Besides, you can always have a paper dictionary with phonetic transcriptions with you - and with a PC it might sometimes be difficult. :-)

Listen as much as you can

I can't recommend listening enough if you want to improve your pronunciation. Ideally, you should listen to audio recordings every day. Try to memorize parts of recordings, then say them from memory imitating the speakers voice. You may even record yourself and compare the recording of your voice to the original one.

Read more about listening: The importance of reading and listening.

Practise reading aloud

You won't achieve good pronunciation without practice. It's not enough to know the correct pronunciation of words - you need to be able say them quickly. You need to train your brain and your mouth to pronounce English words - it's just like physical training.

Reading aloud will help you achieve fluency in speaking. It will also help you identify the problematic areas - words about whose pronunciation you are unsure or things like the pronunciation of numbers. Whenever you say something incorrectly, check out what is the correct pronunciation.

It's a good idea to read out loud your corrected writing. This way you will practise your pronunciation and memorize the corrections from the text at the same time.

Learn the pronunciation of all the words you use

Whenever you learn a new word, learn its pronunciation, too. It's a terrible thing when you know the word you need, but can't say it because you don't know how to pronounce it.

Practise pronouncing phrases you use often. Learn how to spell your name and how to say your telephone number and e-mail address.

Change the habits that come from your native language

English has borrowed lots of words from other languages - from ancient Latin and Greek to Eskimo and Farsi. It's very likely that English has borrowed some words from your own language, too. And certainly there are plenty of similar words between English and your native language.

However, while the spelling of words that English borrowed from your language can be similar, the pronunciation is almost certainly different. For example, take the German and English pronunciation of the word hamburger.

Straight to the point - try to become independent of your native language. The sooner you forget the habits that come from your mother tongue, the better.

English pronunciation pitfalls

Numbers

The proper pronunciation of numbers in English causes trouble to lots of people. Make sure you know how to pronounce the following properly:

• 12.4 (twelve point four)
• 2/3 (two thirds), 4/5 (four fifths), 7/12 (seven over twelve)
• 2² (two squared), 4³ (four cubed), 5⁹ (five to the power of nine)
• 67% (sixty-seven per cent)
• 6 m x 10 m (six metres by ten metres)

• My phone number is 70455. (seven o four double five)
• The city was founded in 1021. (ten twenty one)
  Shakespeare wrote Hamlet around 1600. (sixteen hundred)
  The company was established in 1901. (nineteen o one)
  Jack first visited Russia in 1993. (nineteen ninety-three)
  Poland joined the EU in 2004. (two thousand and four)
• My father was born during the World War II. (/we:ld wo: 'tu:/, not world war the second)

See also Wikipedia: How to name numbers in English.

Homographs

Homographs are words which are spelled the same but have different meanings and pronunciation.

• Would you set the VCR to record /ri'ko:d/ The Simpsons for me tonight?
  I spent a lot of time listening to records /'reko:ds/.
  
• I can't read /ri:d/ your writing.
  She picked up the letter and read /red/ it.
• I always use /ju:z/ the same shampoo.
  Try to make good use /ju:s/ of your time.
• Plants can't live /liv/ without water.
  U2 is singing live /laiv/ on TV tonight.
  
• A sudden gust of wind /wind/ blew the paper out of his hand.
  I hate watches that you have to wind /waind/.
  
• Can you see me in the photo? I'm in the back row /r..u/ on the left.
  He had just had a row /rau/ with his wife.
  

Homophones

Homophones are words that sound the same, but have different meanings and spellings. For example when you hear /pein/ you don't know if it's a flat piece of glass (a pane) or an unpleasant sensation (pain). You have to work it out from the context.

• aloud/allowed = /..'laud/
  You're not allowed to talk during the test.
  Read this passage aloud.
• faze/phase = /feiz/
  Mark was embarrassed, but it didn't faze Steve a bit.
  The project is only in the initial phase as yet, but it's looking quite promising.
• flu/flew = /flu:/
  She couldn't go because she had flu.
  The window suddenly flew open.
• knew/new = /nju:/
  No one knew where Jackie was.
  Have you seen their new baby?
• meat/meet = /mi:t/
  I don't eat meat.
  Let's meet for dinner.
• our/hour = /au../
  You can stay at our house.
  The exam lasted an hour and a half.
• pane/pain = /pein/
  I watched the rain as it pounded against the window pane.
  He felt a sharp pain in his stomach.
• sole/soul = /s..ul/
  There is a hole in the sole of my shoe.
  She knew in her soul that Jim was never going to change.
• some/sum = /s^m/
  I've got to do some more work before I can go out.
  My aunt left me a small sum of money when she died.
• weak/week = /wi:k/
  She felt weak with emotion at the sight of him.
  I go to the cinema about once a week.
• weather/whether = /'weTH../
  What will the weather be like tomorrow?
  She asked me whether I was interested in working for her.

Word commonly mispronounced

These words cause trouble to many learners. Make sure you know how to pronounce them properly!

• apostrophe = /..'postr..fi/
• comb = /k..um/
• comfortable = /'k^mft..b..l/
• hiccough = /'hik^p/
• knowledge = /'nolidZ/
• mountain = /'mauntIn/
• muscle = /'m^s..l/
• pseudonym = /'sju:d..nim/
• psychology = /sai'kol..dZi/, psychiatry = /sai'kai..tri/
• receipt = /ri'si:t/
• subtle = /'s^tl/
• whistle = /'wis..l/

sumber : english.hb.pl

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Sejarah Kong Hu Cu

Sejarah Kong Hu Cu October 18th, 2011 by admin | Posted under Unik. 0 inShare Sejarah Kong Hu Cu 212x300 Sejarah Kong Hu CuLahir sekitar tahun 551 SM di kota kecil Lu, kini masuk wilayah propinsi Shantung di timur laut daratan Cina. Dalam usia muda ditinggal mati ayah, membuatnya hidup sengsara di samping ibunya. Waktu berangkat dewasa dia jadi pegawai negeri kelas teri tapi sesudah selang beberapa tahun dia memutuskan mendingan copot diri saja. Sepanjang enam belas tahun berikutnya Kong Hu-Cu jadi guru, sedikit demi sedikit mencari pengaruh dan pengikut anutan filosofinya. 

Menginjak umur lima puluh tahun bintangnya mulai bersinar karena dia dapat kedudukan tinggi di pemerintahan kota Lu. Sang nasib baik rupanya tidak selamanya ramah karena orang-orang yang dengki dengan ulah ini dan ulah itu menyeretnya ke pengadilan sehingga bukan saja berhasil mencopotnya dari kursi jabatan tapi juga membuatnya meninggalkan kota. Tak kurang dari tiga belas tahun lamanya Kong Hu-Cu berkelana ke mana kaki melangkah, jadi guru keliling, baru pulang kerumah asal lima tahun sebelum wafatnya tahun 479 SM. 

Kong Hu-Cu kerap dianggap selaku pendiri sebuah agama; anggapan ini tentu saja meleset. Dia jarang sekali mengkaitkan ajarannya dengan keTuhanan, menolak perbincangan alam akhirat, dan mengelak tegas setiap omongan yang berhubungan dengan soal-soal metaflsika. Dia -tak lebih dan tak kurang- seorang filosof sekuler, cuma berurusan dengan masalah-masalah moral politik dan pribadi serta tingkah laku akhlak. Ada dua nilai yang teramat penting, kata Kong Hu-Cu, yaitu “Yen” dan “Li:” “Yen” sering diterjemahkan dengan kata “Cinta,” tapi sebetulnya lebih kena diartikan “Keramah-tamahan dalam hubungan dengan seseorang.” “Li” dilukiskan sebagai gabungan antara tingkah laku, ibadah, adat kebiasaan, tatakrama dan sopan santun. 

Pemujaan terhadap leluhur, dasar bin dasarnya kepercayaan orang Cina bahkan sebelum lahirnya Kong Hu-Cu, lebih diteguhkan lagi dengan titik berat kesetiaan kepada sanak keluarga dan penghormatan terhadap orang tua. Ajaran Kong Hu-Cu juga menggaris bawahi arti penting kemestian seorang istri menaruh hormat dan taat kepada suami serta kemestian serupa dari seorang warga kepada pemerintahannya. Ini agak berbeda dengan cerita-cerita rakyat Cina yang senantiasa menentang tiap bentuk tirani. Kong Hu-Cu yakin, adanya negara itu tak lain untuk melayani kepentingan rakyat, bukan terputar balik. 

Tak jemu-jemunya Kong Hu-Cu menekankan bahwa penguasa mesti memerintah pertama-tama berlandaskan beri contoh teladan yang moralis dan bukannya lewat main keras dan kemplang. Dan salah satu hukum ajarannya sedikit mirip dengan “Golden Rule” nya Nasrani yang berbunyi “Apa yang kamu tidak suka orang lain berbuat terhadap dirimu, jangan lakukan.” Pokok pandangan utama Kong Hu-Cu dasarnya teramat konservatif. Menurut hematnya, jaman keemasan sudah lampau, dan dia menghimbau baik penguasa maupun rakyat supaya kembali asal, berpegang pada ukuran moral yang genah, tidak ngelantur. Kenyataan yang ada bukanlah perkara yang mudah dihadapi. Keinginan Kong Hu-Cu agar cara memerintah bukan main bentak, melainkan lewat tunjukkan suri teladan yang baik tidak begitu lancar pada awal-awal jamannya. Karena itu, Kong Hu-Cu lebih mendekati seorang pembaharu, seorang inovator ketimbang apa yang sesungguhnya jadi idamannya. 

Kong Hu-Cu hidup di jaman dinasti Chou, masa menyuburnya kehidupan intelektual di Cina, sedangkan penguasa saat itu tidak menggubris sama sekali petuah-petuahnya. Baru sesudah dia wafatlah ajaran-ajarannya menyebar luas ke seluruh pojok Cina. Berbetulan dengan munculnya dinasti Ch’in tahun 221 SM, mengalami masa yang amat suram. Kaisar Shih Huang Ti, kaisar pertama dinasti Ch’ing bertekat bulat membabat habis penganut Kong Hu-Cu dan memenggal mata rantai yang menghubungi masa lampau. Dikeluarkannya perintah harian menggencet lumat ajaran-ajaran Kong Hu-Cu dan menggerakkan baik spion maupun tukang pukul dan pengacau profesional untuk melakukan penggeledahan besar-besaran, merampas semua buku yang memuat ajaran Kong Hu-Cu dan dicemplungkan ke dalam api unggun sampai hancur jadi abu. Kebejatan berencana ini rupanya tidak juga mempan. 

Tatkala dinasti Ch’ing mendekati saat ambruknya, penganut-penganut Kong Hu-Cu bangkit kembali bara semangatnya dan mengobarkan lagi doktrin Kong Hu-Cu. Di masa dinasti berikutnya (dinasti Han tahun 206 SM – 220 M). Confucianisme menjadi filsafat resmi negara Cina. Mulai dari masa dinasti Han, kaisar-kaisar Cina setingkat demi setingkat mengembangkan sistem seleksi bagi mereka yang ingin jadi pegawai negeri dengan jalan menempuh ujian agar yang jadi pegawai negeri jangan orang serampangan melainkan punya standar kualitas baik ketrampilan maupun moralnya. Lama-lama seleksi makin terarah dan berbobot: mencantumkan mata ujian filosofi dasar Kong Hu-Cu. 

Berhubung jadi pegawal negeri itu merupakan jenjang tangga menuju kesejahteraan material dan keterangkatan status sosial, harap dimaklumi apabila di antara para peminat terjadi pertarungan sengit berebut tempat. Akibat berikutnya, ber generasi-generasi pentolan-pentolan intelektual Cina dalam jumlah besar-besaran menekuni sampai mata berkunang-kunang khazanah tulisan-tulisan klasik Khong Hu-Cu. Dan, selama berabad-abad seluruh pegawai negeri Cina terdiri dari orang-orang pandangannya berpijak pada filosofi Kong Hu-Cu. 

Sistem ini (dengan hanya sedikit selingan) berlangsung hampir selama dua ribu tahun, mulai tahun 100 SM sampai 1900 M. Tapi, Confucianisme bukanlah semata filsafat resmi pemerintahan Cina, tapi juga diterima dan dihayati oleh sebagian terbesar orang Cina, berpengaruh sampai ke dasar-dasar kalbu mereka, menjadi pandu arah berfikir selama jangka waktu lebih dari dua ribu tahun. Ada beberapa sebab mengapa Confucianisme punya pengaruh yang begitu dahsyat pada orang Cina. Pertama, kejujuran dan kepolosan Kong Hu-Cu tak perlu diragukan lagi. Kedua, dia seorang yang moderat dan praktis serta tak minta keliwat banyak hal-hal yang memang tak sanggup dilaksanakan orang. 

Jika Kong Hu-Cu kepingin seseorang jadi terhormat, orang itu tidak usah bersusah payah menjadi orang suci terlebih dahulu. Dalam hal ini, seperti dalam hal ajaran-ajarannya yang lain, dia mencerminkan dan sekaligus menterjemahkan watak praktis orang Cina. Segi inilah kemungkinan yang menjadi faktor terpokok kesuksesan ajaran-ajaran Kong Hu-Cu. Kong Hu-Cu tidaklah meminta keliwat banyak. Misalnya dia tidak minta orang Cina menukar dasar-dasar kepercayaan lamanya. Malah kebalikannya, Kong Hu-Cu ikut menunjang dengan bahasa yang jelas bersih agar mereka tidak perlu beringsut. Tampaknya, tidak ada seorang filosof mana pun di dunia yang begitu dekat bersentuhan dalam hal pandangan-pandangan yang mendasar dengan penduduk seperti halnya Kong Hu-Cu. 

Confucianisme yang menekankan rangkaian kewajiban-kewajiban yang ditujukan kepada pribadi-pribadi ketimbang menonjolkan hak-haknya -rasanya sukar dicerna dan kurang menarik bagi ukuran dunia Barat. Sebagai filosofi kenegaraan tampak luar biasa efektif. Diukur dari sudut kemampuan memelihara kerukunan dan kesejahteraan dalam negeri Cina dalam jangka waktu tak kurang dari dua ribu tahun, jelaslah dapat disejajarkan dengan bentuk-bentuk pemerintahan terbaik di dunia. Gagasan filosofi Kong Hu-Cu yang berakar dari kultur Cina, tidaklah berpengaruh banyak di luar wilayah Asia Timur. Di Korea dan Jepang memang kentara pengaruhnya dan ini disebabkan kedua negeri itu memang sangat dipengaruhi oleh kultur Cina. 

Saat ini Confucianisme berada dalam keadaan guram di Cina. Masalahnya, pemerintah Komunis berusaha sekuat tenaga agar kaitan alam pikiran penduduk dengan masa lampau terputus samasekali. Dengan gigih dan sistematik Confucianisme digempur habis sehingga besar kemungkinan suatu saat yang tidak begitu jauh Confucianisme lenyap dari bumi Cina. Tapi karena di masa lampau, akar tunggang Confilcianisme begitu dalam menghunjam di bumi Cina, bukan mustahil -entah seratus atau seratus lima puluh lahun yang akan datang – beberapa filosof Cina sanggup mengawinkan dua gagasan besar: Confucianisme dan ajaran ajaran Mao Tse-Tung.

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Panduan Bisnis Internet

Siapa bilang internet tidak dapat menghasilkan uang??

Kalau anda masih berpikir demikian buang jauh jauh pemikiran anda...

Ayo rebut dolar dan rupiah yang bertebaran di dunia maya...

Langsung saja kita bahas apa saja yang diperlukan dalam bisnis online..

1. Tentunya anda harus punya komputer donk, yaah minimal anda menguasai atau masih melalui warnet sekalipun it's ok..

2. Anda harus sabar dan selalu berusaha untuk update...

3. Anda jangan buru-buru melihat banyaknya iklan yang mengajak anda untuk menghasilkan jutaaan dalam per minggu.

4. Nah yang keempat anda harus punya blog. Udah tau kan apa itu blog? kalau belum klik aja di sini. dengan blog kita dapat saling berbagi informasi dan menuangkan ide serta pikiran kita ke dalam bentuk tulisan. Ada banyak penyedia jasa blog, yang paling terkenal itu adalah blogspot dan wordpress.

5. Kalau anda sudah punya blog isilah blog anda dengan tulisan anda, ataupun copy paste juga boleh, tapi jangan keseringan, karena jika anda keseringan copy paste algoritma pihak penyedia blog seperti mbah Google akan membaca anda sebagai Spammers, dan berujung pada dihapusnya blog anda baik secara temporary maupun permanen.

6. Nah kalau anda copy paste ya minimal anda ubahlah isinya sedikit, dengan perbandingan 70:30

7. Usahakan anda menyertakan sumber copy paste anda. Ini adalah tata krama dalam dunia maya. 

8. Buatlah akun webhosting anda. Da tau apa arti webhosting??? contoh seperti ini, anda punya file dalam bentuk pdf, selanjutnya anda simpan di hosting, nah orang yang ingin mendownload file anda tinggal anda tujukan ke alamat hosting tempat anda menyimpan file tsb.

Ada banyak hosting lokal maupun non lokal. Saya menyarankan anda menggunakan Ziddu, karena file storage yang tidak terbatas dan kecepatan yang lumayan. Untuk mendaftar cukup klik di sini saja

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Mengenal Kriptografi

Kriptografi???? Sebenarnya saya memposting tulisan ini semata mata terinspirasi dari sebuah film yang menceritakan tentang seorang hacker yang menguasai kriptografi dengan spesialisasi kriptografi linier yang disewa polisi untuk melawan musuh yang juga menguasai komputer. Iseng iseng saya surfing di internet mencari tau apa pengertian kriptografi dan inilah dia...

 

Kriptografi (cryptography) berasal dari bahasa Yunani, terdiri dari dua suku kata yaitu kripto dan graphia. Kripto artinya menyembunyikan, sedangkan graphia artinya tulisan.

Secara umum kriptografi adalah ilmu dan seni untuk menjaga kerahasiaan beritabruce Schneier - Applied Cryptography].  

Alat Kriptografi yang dipakai di Jerman saat Perang Dunia II

Kriptografi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari teknik-teknik matematika yang berhubungan dengan aspek keamanan informasi seperti kerahasiaan data, keabsahan data, integritas data, serta autentikasi data [A. Menezes, P. van Oorschot and S. Vanstone, 1996 - Handbook of Applied Cryptography].

1. Kerahasiaan, menjaga isi informasi dari siapapun, kecuali yang memiliki otoritas atau kunci yang dipertukarkan.
2. Integritas data, keutuhan data dari upaya mencegahan terhadap manipulasi, penyisipan ataupun penghapusan data oleh pihak-pihak yang tidak berhak.
3. Autentikasi, identifikasi/pengenalan entitas, kerennya dikenal dengan handshaking.
4. Non Repudiasi, pencegahan terhadap penyangkalan suatu informasi oleh sipengirim.

Content informasi / pesan umumnya dapat disadap oleh pihak lain yang tidak berhak untuk mengetahuinya. Maka dari itu, sebaiknya informasi tersebut diubah dulu  menjadi suatu kode yang tidak dapat dimengerti oleh pihak lain. Serunya, banyak sekali teknik-teknik yang digunakan untuk melakukannya.

Berikut istilah yang sering dipakai :

Enkripsi adalah sebuah proses penyandian yang melakukan perubahan suatu kode (pesan) yang semula bisa dimengerti (plainteks) menjadi suatu kode yang tidak dapat dimengerti (cipherteks). Sedangkan proses kebalikannya untuk mengubah cipherteks menjadi plainteks disebut dekripsi. Proses enkripsi dan dekripsi memerlukan suatu mekanisme (protokol kriptografi) dan kunci tertentu (simetrik/asimetrik).

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Kali ini saya ingin berbagi pengetahuan mengenai sejarah perkembangan komputer. Semakin majunya teknologi zaman tidak luput dari peran komputer. Begitu pentingnya komputer di kehidupan kita. Tapi tidak semua orang pengguna komputer tau sejarah dari awal penemuan komputer. Siapakah penemunya, dan bagaimana perkembangan kemajuan komputer hingga menjadi seperti saat ini. Untuk lebih detailnya simak ulasan di bawah ini.

Kebanyakan orang mengenal sejarah komputer yang pertama kali dibuat adalah ENIAC. Komputer ENIAC, yang merupakan komputer elektronik yang mempunyai bobot seberat 30 ton, panjang 30 m dan tinggi 2.4 m dan membutuhkan daya listrik 174 kilowatts. Padahal komputer digital pertama sebenarnya adalah ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). Namun ketenarannya menjadi pudar setelah “diserobot” ENIAC. Bagaimana asal mulanya?

erniac

eniac 2

Sejarah Perkembangan Komputer

Di era teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang pesat sekarang ini, komputer termasuk salah satu peranti “wajib” yang tak dapat diabaikan. Kini peranti yang pada dasarnya hanya untuk membantu proses berhitung (to compute) ini telah sangat ampuh dan multiguna. Merampungkan pekerjaan kantor, menikmati musik dan film, hingga nge-game dapat dilakukan menggunakan alat ini. Begitu pula menjelajah internet dan bertukar data antar pengguna yang terpisah jarak ribuan kilometer.

Vincent Atanasoff lahir pada 4 Oktober 1903 di Hamilton, New York, namun dibesarkan di Brewster, Florida. Sejak kecil Atanasoff telah menunjukkan ketertarikannya pada matematika. Anak seorang insinyur listrik ini pun tak mengalami banyak hambatan saat mereguk ilmu di bangku sekolah. Bahkan pendidikan menengahnya (setara SMA) diselesaikannya dalam waktu dua tahun saja.
Selepas itu Atanasoff melenggang ke University of Florida untuk menekuni bidang kelistrikan. Mungkin kekaguman pada sang ayah melandasi pilihannya ini. Di usia 22, dia lulus dengan menggondol gelar Bachelor of Science. Tak main-main, nilainya pun sempurna, A untuk semua bidang studi.

Penemu Komputer

penemu komputer

Selanjutnya Atanasoff melanjutkan studi tingkat master di Iowa State College. Di sini Atanasoff menekuni bidang matematika. Tak perlu waktu panjang, Atanasoff merampungkan studinya hanya dalam waktu satu tahun. Gelar master pun ia sabet di usianya yang ke-23 pada 1926.

Seakan tak puas, Atanasoff melanjutkan lagi studinya untuk mencapai tingkat doktor. Kali ini fisika menjadi pilihannya. Selama empat tahun Atanasoff berjuang meneliti seluk beluk helium. Akhirnya pada 1930, dengan mengusung tesis berjudul “The Dielectric Constant of Helium” studi formalnya pun rampung. Gelar Ph.D. bidang fisika teori ia peroleh di usia 27 dari University of Wisconsin.

kalkulator

Saat menempuh studi doktornya, Atanasoff sering kali merasa buntu ketika harus menghitung menggunakan kalkulator mekanik. Meski termasuk mesin hitung tercanggih di era itu, Atanasoff merasa bahwa harus ada solusi lain untuk menggantikan kalkulator tersebut.

Pada 1936, Atanasoff berhasil membuat kalkulator analog. Alat ini dibuatnya setelah mempelajari cara kerja kalkulator mekanik Monroe dan mengkanibalnya serta menggabungkannya dengan tabung IBM. Alat hitung analog ini dapat bekerja baik. Meski demikian, hal itu tak memuaskannya.

Keterbatasan sistem mekanik dan analog membuat Atanasoff berpikir untuk menggunakan pendekatan digital. Namun, ide ini ternyata tak mudah dilaksanakan. Setelah hampir satu tahun mencoba mengimplementasikan gagasannya, Atanasoff merasa menemukan jalan buntu. Puncaknya terjadi saat musim dingin pada 1937.

Setelah penat berkutat di laboratorium, Atanasoff bermaksud mendinginkan otaknya agar tak “meledak” hanya gara-gara buntu pikiran. Ia pun segera mengambil mobilnya dan menyusuri jalan sambil menyegarkan diri. Namun tak dinyana, saat berkendara itu ternyata otaknya terus bekerja dan tak bisa berhenti memikirkan masalah yang sedang dikerjakannya. Hingga tak terasa telah lebih dari 300 km panjang jalan yang ditelusurinya.

Akhirnya Atanasoff memutuskan untuk berhenti di sebuah kedai. Di saat sedang rileks itulah Atanasoff menerima “pencerahan’ ‘. Berbagai ide segar datang silih berganti menari-nari di otaknya. Salah satunya adalah matematika binari dan logika Boolean. Solusi itu dianggapnya pas untuk komputer digital yang sedang dirancangnya.

“Oleh-oleh” berharga buah dari perjalanan ke Rock Island itu pun segera dimatangkannya. Pada September 1939, Atanasoff mendapat suntikan dana sebesar 650 dolar AS. Selain itu, ia pun mendapat bantuan tenaga dan pikiran dari Clifford Berry, salah satu mahasiswanya yang sama-sama gandrung akan solusi digital.

Atanasoff dan Berry segera mewujudkan komputer impian mereka pada November 1939. Prototipe yang mereka buat ternyata dapat bekerja. Atanasoff menamakan mesin hitung digitalnya itu dengan ABC. Kependekan dari Atanasoff-Berry Computer.

Komputer ABC

komputer ABC

Lebih dari sekadar dapat bekerja, ABC pun ternyata lebih unggul dari mesin hitung lain yang ada saat itu. Ini dibuktikannya dengan mampu menyelesaikan 29 persamaan linear secara bersamaan. Dibutuhkan waktu yang lebih singkat untuk mendapatkan penyelesaiannya dari ABC dibanding mesin hitung lain.

Komputer ABC 2

Atanasoff dan Berry segera mewujudkan komputer impian mereka pada November 1939. Prototipe yang mereka buat ternyata dapat bekerja. Atanasoff menamakan mesin hitung digitalnya itu dengan ABC. Kependekan dari Atanasoff-Berry Computer.

Lebih dari sekadar dapat bekerja, ABC pun ternyata lebih unggul dari mesin hitung lain yang ada saat itu. Ini dibuktikannya dengan mampu menyelesaikan 29 persamaan linear secara bersamaan. Dibutuhkan waktu yang lebih singkat untuk mendapatkan penyelesaiannya dari ABC dibanding mesin hitung lain.

Namun, bila dibandingkan komputer modern saat ini, ABC sangatlah “primitif”. Ia tak dilengkapi dengan CPU (central processing unit). ABC hanya menggunakan tabung hampa (vacuum tube) untuk mempercepat proses kalkulasi. Salah satu hal dari ABC yang tetap diterapkan pada komputer modern adalah pemisahan memori dari bagian komputasi. Ini seperti halnya memori DRAM sekarang.

Pada Desember 1940, dalam sebuah pertemuan ilmiah di Philadelphia, Atanasoff berkenalan dengan John Mauchly. Mauchly termasuk salah seorang pembicara yang tampil untuk mendemonstrasikan kalkulator
analog penganalisis data cuaca. Pada perkenalannya itu Atanasoff menceritakan penemuan mesin ABC-nya pada Mauchly. Atanasoff pun mengundang Mauchly untuk mengunjunginya di Iowa.

Mauchly Portrait

Selesai pertemuan, Atanasoff bersama Berry mampir di Washington untuk mengunjungi kantor paten. Mereka mencoba meyakinkan kantor paten bahwa konsep yang diterapkan pada ABC benar-benar yang pertama. Ternyata benar! Meski demikian, keduanya tak segera mematenkan ABC

Meski ABC telah terbukti menjadi solusi alternatif untuk menggantikan kalkulator, namun Atanasoff tak pernah sempat menyempurnakannya. Panggilan negara yang membutuhkan tenaganya saat Perang Dunia mengharuskannya meninggalkan Iowa. Mesin ABC yang berbobot ratusan kilogram tak mungkin digotong ke tempat kerjanya yang baru di Washington. Pengurusan paten ABC pun dipercayakannya kepada pegawai administrasi di kampus Iowa. Namun, tampaknya hal ini tak pernah dilaksanakan oleh sang pegawai.

Di sisi lain, Mauchly semakin sering mengunjungi Atanasoff. Kunjungan itu dimulai pada 1941 dan Mauchly mendapat kesempatan melihat ABC. Ia pun mendapat banyak ide dari Atanasoff. Sebagai sesama peneliti, Atanasoff tentu senang mendiskusikan berbagai hal kepada Mauchly. Ia pun tak pernah ragu mengungkap berbagai konsep brilian yang dimilikinya. Namun, selama kunjungannya itu Mauchly tak pernah menyebutkan kalau ia sedang mengerjakan suatu projek komputer untuk dirinya sendiri.

Belakangan Mauchly berhasil membuat ENIAC. Sebuah komputer raksasa untuk Angkatan Darat AS. Atas karyanya ini, Mauchly tak pernah menyebut Atanasoff sebagai sumber inspirasinya. Begitu pun kenyataan bahwa Mauchly menyerap banyak ilmu dari Atanasoff. Pada akhirnya masyarakat menjadi lebih mengenal ENIAC sebagai komputer digital pertama, bukannya ABC.

Namun, rupanya kebenaran tak pernah bisa disembunyikan. Kepeloporan Atanasoff pada solusi digital terungkap saat terjadi sengketa hak paten ENIAC antara Honeywell Inc. dan Sperry Rand yang membeli hak paten atas ENIAC dari Mauchly pada 1951. Pertempuran keduanya di pengadilan baru tuntas pada 19 Oktober 1973 saat hakim menyatakan bahwa paten atas ENIAC adalah tidak benar dan Mauchly (bersama J. Presper Eckert) bukanlah pioner komputer digital elektronik. Selain itu, hakim juga menyatakan bahwa Mauchly bukanlah pemilik ide yang asli, tetapi mendapatkannya dari Dr John Vincent Atanasoff.

Meski keputusan itu secara tidak langsung ikut memberi “kemenangan’ ‘ pada Atanasoff, namun kebanyakan orang masih menganggap ENIAC sebagai komputer digital pertama. Mungkin ini disebabkan karena persengketaan itu kalah pamor dibandingkan kasus Watergate yang melibatkan Presiden Nixon. ABC tetap tak banyak dikenal hingga Atanasoff tutup usia pada 15 Juni 1995

Semoga artikel sejarah perkembangan komputer ini bermanfaat.

sumber :caritauaja

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Free and Easy Biorhythm Calculator

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Lebih dari 100 juta orang telah mendownload software ini.
Fungsi utama dari software ini adalah untuk mengoptimalkan kinerja komputer, dengan menghilangkan file-file tidak berguna dari system komputer anda.
Diluaran anda bisa mendapatkan software dengan fungsi serupa, namun harganya bisa mencapai puluhan hingga ratusan dolar.

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Glossary of English Grammar Terms

This glossary of English grammar terms relates to the English language. Some terms here may have additional or extended meanings when applied to other languages. For example, "case" in some languages applies to pronouns and nouns. In English, nouns do not have case and therefore no reference to nouns is made in its definition here.

 

Term	Definition
active voice	one of two voices in English; a direct form of expression where the subject performs or "acts" the verb; see also passive voice eg: "Many people eat rice"
adjective	part of speech that typically describes or "modifies" a noun eg: "It was a big dog."
adjective clause	seldom-used term for relative clause
adjunct	word or phrase that adds information to a sentence and that can be removed from the sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical eg: I met John at school.
adverb	word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb eg: quickly, really, very
adverbial clause	dependent clause that acts like an adverb and indicates such things as time, place or reason eg: Although we are getting older, we grow more beautiful each day.
affirmative	statement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth or "yes" meaning; opposite of negative eg: The sun is hot.
affix	language unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after (or sometimes within) the root or stem of a word eg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix)
agreement (also known as "concord")	logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words based on tense, case or number eg: this phone, these phones
antecedent	word, phrase or clause that is replaced by a pronoun (or other substitute) when mentioned subsequently (in the same sentence or later) eg: "Emily is nice because she brings me flowers."
appositive	noun phrase that re-identifies or describes its neighbouring noun eg: "Canada, a multicultural country, is recognized by its maple leaf flag."
article	determiner that introduces a noun phrase as definite (the) or indefinite (a/an)
aspect	feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or completion of time; verbs can have no aspect (simple), or can have continuous or progressive aspect (expressing duration), or have perfect or perfective aspect (expressing completion)
auxiliary verb (also called "helping verb")	verb used with the main verb to help indicate something such as tense or voice eg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.
bare infinitive	unmarked form of the verb (no indication of tense, mood, person, or aspect) without the particle "to"; typically used after modal auxiliary verbs; see also infinitive eg: "He should come", "I can swim"
base form	basic form of a verb before conjugation into tenses etc eg: be, speak
case	form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other words in the sentence; case can be subjective, objective or possessive eg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my dog"
causative verb	verb that causes things to happen such as "make", "get" and "have"; the subject does not perform the action but is indirectly responsible for it eg: "She made me go to school", "I had my nails painted"
clause	group of words containing a subject and its verb eg: "It was late when he arrived"
comparative, comparative adjective	form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or "more" that is used to show differences or similarities between two things (not three or more things) eg: colder, more quickly
complement	part of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to the predicate eg: Mary did not say where she was going.
compound noun	noun that is made up of more than one word; can be one word, or hyphenated, or separated by a space eg: toothbrush, mother-in-law, Christmas Day
compound sentence	sentence with at least two independent clauses; usually joined by a conjunction eg: "You can have something healthy but you can't have more junk food."
concord	another term for agreement
conditional	structure in English where one action depends on another ("if-then" or "then-if" structure); most common are 1st, 2nd, and 3rd conditionals eg: "If I win I will be happy", "I would be happy if I won"
conjugate	to show the different forms of a verb according to voice, mood, tense, number and person; conjugation is quite simple in English compared to many other languages eg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they walk; I walked, you walked, he/she/it walked, we walked, they walked
conjunction	word that joins or connects two parts of a sentence eg: Ram likes tea and coffee. Anthony went swimming although it was raining.
content word	word that has meaning in a sentence, such as a verb or noun (as opposed to a structure word, such as pronoun or auxiliary verb); content words are stressed in speech eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"
continuous (also called "progressive")	verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions that are in progress or continuing over a given time period (can be past, present or future); formed with "BE" + "VERB-ing" eg: "They are watching TV."
contraction	shortening of two (or more) words into one eg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have)
countable noun	thing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see uncountable noun) eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees
dangling participle	illogical structure that occurs in a sentence when a writer intends to modify one thing but the reader attaches it to another eg: "Running to the bus, the flowers were blooming." (In the example sentence it seems that the flowers were running.)
declarative sentence	sentence type typically used to make a statement (as opposed to a question or command) eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny"
defining relative clause (also called "restrictive relative clause")	relative clause that contains information required for the understanding of the sentence; not set off with commas; see also non-defining clause eg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the winner"
demonstrative pronoun demonstrative adjective	pronoun or determiner that indicates closeness to (this/these) or distance from (that/those) the speaker eg: "This is a nice car", "Can you see those cars?"
dependent clause	part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb but does not form a complete thought and cannot stand on its own; see also independent clause eg: "When the water came out of the tap..."
determiner	word such as an article or a possessive adjective or other adjective that typically comes at the beginning of noun phrases eg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new shirt?", "Let's buy some eggs"
direct speech	saying what someone said by using their exact words; see also indirect speech eg: "Lucy said: 'I am tired.'"
direct object	noun phrase in a sentence that directly receives the action of the verb; see also indirect object eg: "Joey bought the car", "I like it", "Can you see the man wearing a pink shirt and waving a gun in the air?"
embedded question	question that is not in normal question form with a question mark; it occurs within another statement or question and generally follows statement structure eg: "I don't know where he went," "Can you tell me where it is before you go?", "They haven't decided whether they should come"
finite verb	verb form that has a specific tense, number and person eg: I work, he works, we learned, they ran
first conditional	"if-then" conditional structure used for future actions or events that are seen as realistic possibilities eg: "If we win the lottery we will buy a car"
fragment	incomplete piece of a sentence used alone as a complete sentence; a fragment does not contain a complete thought; fragments are common in normal speech but unusual (inappropriate) in formal writing eg: "When's her birthday? - In December", "Will they come? - Probably not"
function	purpose or "job" of a word form or element in a sentence eg: The function of a subject is to perform the action. One function of an adjective is to describe a noun. The function of a noun is to name things.
future continuous (also called "future progressive")	tense* used to describe things that will happen in the future at a particular time; formed with WILL + BE + VERB-ing eg: "I will be graduating in September."
future perfect	tense* used to express the past in the future; formed with WILL HAVE + VERB-ed eg: "I will have graduated by then"
future perfect continuous	tense* used to show that something will be ongoing until a certain time in the future; formed with WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB-ing eg: "We will have been living there for three months by the time the baby is born"
future simple	tense* used to describe something that hasn't happened yet such as a prediction or a sudden decision; formed with WILL + BASE VERB eg: "He will be late", "I will answer the phone"
genitive case	case expressing relationship between nouns (possession, origin, composition etc) eg: "John's dog", "door of the car", "children's songs", "pile of sand"
gerund	noun form of a verb, formed with VERB-ing eg: "Walking is great exercise"
gradable adjective	adjective that can vary in intensity or grade when paired with a grading adverb ; see also non-gradable adjective eg: quite hot, very tall
grading adverb	adverb that can modify the intensity or grade of a gradable adjective eg: quite hot, very tall
hanging participle	another term for dangling participle
helping verb	another term for auxiliary verb
imperative	form of verb used when giving a command; formed with BASE VERB only eg: "Brush your teeth!"
indefinite pronoun	pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". eg: anything, each, many, somebody
independent clause (also called "main clause")	group of words that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence; see also dependent clause eg: "Tara is eating curry.", "Tara likes oranges and Joe likes apples."
indirect object	noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb; see also direct object eg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought his wife a new car"
indirect question	another term for embedded question
indirect speech (also called "reported speech")	saying what someone said without using their exact words; see direct speech eg: "Lucy said that she was tired"
infinitive	base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare infinitive eg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be: that is the question"
inflection	change in word form to indicate grammatical meaning eg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took, taking, taken (five inflections)
interjection	common word that expresses emotion but has no grammatical value; can often be used alone and is often followed by an exclamation mark eg: "Hi!", "er", "Ouch!", "Dammit!"
interrogative	(formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally used when asking a question eg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?"
interrogative pronoun	pronoun that asks a question. eg: who, whom, which
intransitive verb	verb that does not take a direct object; see also transitive verb e.g. "He is working hard", "Where do you live?"
inversion	any reversal of the normal word order, especially placing the auxiliary verb before the subject; used in a variety of ways, as in question formation, conditional clauses and agreement or disagreement eg: "Where are your keys?","Had we watched the weather report, we wouldn't have gone to the beach", "So did he", "Neither did she"
irregular verb see irregular verbs list	verb that has a different ending for past tense and past participle forms than the regular "-ed"; see also regular verb eg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done
lexicon, lexis	all of the words and word forms in a language with meaning or function
lexical verb	another term for main verb
linking verb	verbs that connect the subject to more information (but do not indicate action), such as "be" or "seem"
main clause	another term for independent clause
main verb (also called "lexical verb")	any verb in a sentence that is not an auxiliary verb; a main verb has meaning on its own eg: "Does John like Mary?", "I will have arrived by 4pm"
modal verb (also called "modal")	auxiliary verb such as can, could, must, should etc; paired with the bare infinitive of a verb eg: "I should go for a jog"
modifier	word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of another word eg: the house => the white house, the house over there, the house we sold last year
mood	sentence type that indicates the speaker's view towards the degree of reality of what is being said, for example subjunctive, indicative, imperative
morpheme	unit of language with meaning; differs from "word" because some cannot stand alone e.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable
multi-word verb	verb that consists of a basic verb + another word or words (preposition and/or adverb) eg: get up (phrasal verb), believe in (prepositional verb), get on with (phrasal-prepositional verb)
negative	form which changes a "yes" meaning to a "no" meaning; opposite of affirmative eg: "She will not come", "I have never seen her"
nominative case	another term for subjective case
non-defining relative clause (also called "non-restrictive relative clause")	relative clause that adds information but is not completely necessary; set off from the sentence with a comma or commas; see defining relative clause eg: "The boy, who had a chocolate bar in his hand, was still hungry"
non-gradable adjective	adjective that has a fixed quality or intensity and cannot be paired with a grading adverb; see also gradable adjective eg: freezing, boiling, dead
non-restrictive relative clause	another term for non-defining relative clause
noun	part of speech that names a person, place, thing, quality, quantity or concept; see also proper noun and compound noun eg: "The man is waiting", "I was born in London", "Is that your car?", "Do you like music?"
noun clause	clause that takes the place of a noun and cannot stand on its own; often introduced with words such as "that, who or whoever" eg: "What the president said was surprising"
noun phrase (NP)	any word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can function in a sentence as a subject, object or prepositional object; can be one word or many words; can be very simple or very complex eg: "She is nice", "When is the meeting?", "The car over there beside the lampost is mine"
number	change of word form indicating one person or thing (singular) or more than one person or thing (plural) eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they
object	thing or person affected by the verb; see also direct object and indirect object eg: "The boy kicked the ball", "We chose the house with the red door"
objective case	case form of a pronoun indicating an object eg: "John married her", "I gave it to him"
part of speech	one of the classes into which words are divided according to their function in a sentence eg: verb, noun, adjective
participle	verb form that can be used as an adjective or a noun; see past participle, present participle
passive voice	one of two voices in English; an indirect form of expression in which the subject receives the action; see also active voice eg: "Rice is eaten by many people"
past tense (also called "simple past")	tense used to talk about an action, event or situation that occurred and was completed in the past eg: "I lived in Paris for 10 years", "Yesterday we saw a snake"
past continuous	tense often used to describe an interrupted action in the past; formed with WAS/WERE + VERB-ing eg: "I was reading when you called"
past perfect	tense that refers to the past in the past; formed with HAD + VERB-ed eg: "We had stopped the car"
past perfect continuous	tense that refers to action that happened in the past and continued to a certain point in the past; formed with HAD BEEN + VERB-ing eg: "I had been waiting for three hours when he arrived"
past participle	verb form (V3) - usually made by adding "-ed" to the base verb - typically used in perfect and passive tenses, and sometimes as an adjective eg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people", "boiled eggs"
perfect	verb form (specifically an aspect); formed with HAVE/HAS + VERB-ed (present perfect) or HAD + VERB-ed (past perfect)
person	grammatical category that identifies people in a conversation; there are three persons: 1st person (pronouns I/me, we/us) is the speaker(s), 2nd person (pronoun you) is the listener(s), 3rd person (pronouns he/him, she/her, it, they/them) is everybody or everything else
personal pronoun	pronoun that indicates person eg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him"
phrasal verb	multi-word verb formed with a verb + adverb eg: break up, turn off (see phrasal verbs list) NB: many people and books call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs" (see multi-word verbs)
phrase	two or more words that have a single function and form part of a sentence; phrases can be noun, adjective, adverb, verb or prepositional
plural	of a noun or form indicating more than one person or thing; plural nouns are usually formed by adding "-s"; see also singular, number eg: bananas, spoons, trees
position	grammatically correct placement of a word form in a phrase or sentence in relation to other word forms eg: "The correct position for an article is at the beginning of the noun phrase that it describes"
positive	basic state of an adjective or adverb when it shows quality but not comparative or superlative eg: nice, kind, quickly
possessive adjective	adjective (also called "determiner") based on a pronoun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their eg: "I lost my keys", "She likes your car"
possessive case	case form of a pronoun indicating ownership or possession eg: "Mine are blue", "This car is hers"
possessive pronoun	pronoun that indicates ownership or possession eg: "Where is mine?", "These are yours"
predicate	one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the predicate is the part that is not the subject eg: "My brother is a doctor", "Who did you call?", "The woman wearing a blue dress helped me"
prefix	affix that occurs before the root or stem of a word eg: impossible, reload
preposition	part of speech that typically comes before a noun phrase and shows some type of relationship between that noun phrase and another element (including relationships of time, location, purpose etc) eg: "We sleep at night", "I live in London", "This is for digging"
prepositional verb	multi-word verb that is formed with verb + preposition eg: believe in, look after
present participle	-ing form of a verb (except when it is a gerund or verbal noun) eg: "We were eating", "The man shouting at the back is rude", "I saw Tara playing tennis"
present simple (also called "simple present")	tense usually used to describe states and actions that are general, habitual or (with the verb "to be") true right now; formed with the basic verb (+ s for 3rd person singular) eg: "Canada sounds beautiful", "She walks to school", "I am very happy"
present continuous (also called "present progressive")	tense used to describe action that is in process now, or a plan for the future; formed with BE + VERB-ing eg: "We are watching TV", "I am moving to Canada next month"
present perfect	tense that connects the past and the present, typically used to express experience, change or a continuing situation; formed with HAVE + VERB-ed eg: "I have worked there", "John has broken his leg", "How long have you been in Canada?"
present perfect continuous	tense used to describe an action that has recently stopped or an action continuing up to now; formed with HAVE + BEEN + VERB-ing eg: "I'm tired because I've been running", "He has been living in Canada for two years"
progressive	another term for continuous
pronoun	word that replaces a noun or noun phrase; there are several types including personal pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns eg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything
proper noun	noun that is capitalized at all times and is the name of a person, place or thing eg: Shakespeare, Tokyo, EnglishClub.com
punctuation	standard marks such as commas, periods and question marks within a sentence eg: , . ? ! - ; :
quantifier	determiner or pronoun that indicates quantity eg: some, many, all
question tag	final part of a tag question; mini-question at end of a tag question eg: "Snow isn't black, is it?"
question word	another term for WH-word
reciprocal pronoun	pronoun that indicates that two or more subjects are acting mutually; there are two in English - each other, one another eg: "John and Mary were shouting at each other", "The students accused one another of cheating"
reduced relative clause (also called "participial relative clause")	construction similar to a relative clause, but containing a participle instead of a finite verb; this construction is possible only under certain circumstances eg: "The woman sitting on the bench is my sister", "The people arrested by the police have been released"
reflexive pronoun	pronoun ending in -self or -selves, used when the subject and object are the same, or when the subject needs emphasis eg: "She drove herself", "I'll phone her myself"
regular verb see regular verbs list	verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and past participle forms; see also irregular verb eg: work, worked, worked
relative adverb	adverb that introduces a relative clause; there are four in English: where, when, wherever, whenever; see also relative pronoun
relative clause	dependent clause that usually starts with a relative pronoun such as who or which, or relative adverb such as where eg: "The person who finishes first can leave early" (defining), "Texas, where my brother lives, is big" (non-defining)
relative pronoun	pronoun that starts a relative clause; there are five in English: who, whom, whose, which, that; see also relative adverb
reported speech	another term for indirect speech
restrictive relative clause	another term for defining relative clause
second conditional	"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about an unlikely possibility in the future eg: "If we won the lottery we would buy a car"
sentence	largest grammatical unit; a sentence must always include a subject (except for imperatives) and predicate; a written sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop/period (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!); a sentence contains a complete thought such as a statement, question, request or command eg: "Stop!", "Do you like coffee?", "I work."
series	list of items in a sentence eg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips"
singular	of a noun or form indicating exactly one person or thing; singular nouns are usually the simplest form of the noun (as found in a dictionary); see also plural, number eg: banana, spoon, tree
split infinitive	situation where a word or phrase comes between the particle "to" and the verb in an infinitive; considered poor construction by some eg: "He promised to never lie again"
Standard English (S.E.)	"normal" spelling, pronunciation and grammar that is used by educated native speakers of English
structure word	word that has no real meaning in a sentence, such as a pronoun or auxiliary verb (as opposed to a content word, such as verb or noun); structure words are not normally stressed in speech eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"
subject	one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the subject is the part that is not the predicate; typically, the subject is the first noun phrase in a sentence and is what the rest of the sentence "is about" eg: "The rain water was dirty", "Mary is beautiful", "Who saw you?"
subjective case also called "nominative"	case form of a pronoun indicating a subject eg: Did she tell you about her?
subjunctive	fairly rare verb form typically used to talk about events that are not certain to happen, usually something that someone wants, hopes or imagines will happen; formed with BARE INFINITIVE (except past of "be") eg: "The President requests that John attend the meeting"
subordinate clause	another term for dependent clause
suffix	affix that occurs after the root or stem of a word eg: happiness, quickly
superlative, superlative adjective	adjective or adverb that describes the extreme degree of something eg: happiest, most quickly
SVO	subject-verb-object; a common word order where the subject is followed by the verb and then the object eg: "The man crossed the street"
syntax	sentence structure; the rules about sentence structure
tag question	special construction with statement that ends in a mini-question; the whole sentence is a tag question; the mini-question is a question tag; usually used to obtain confirmation eg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat, do you?"
tense	form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.
third conditional	"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about a possible event in the past that did not happen (and is therefore now impossible) eg: "If we had won the lottery we would have bought a car"
transitive verb	action verb that has a direct object (receiver of the action); see also intransitive verb eg: "The kids always eat a snack while they watch TV"
uncountable nouns (also called "mass nouns" or "non-count")	thing that you cannot count, such as substances or concepts; see also countable nouns eg: water, furniture, music
usage	way in which words and constructions are normally used in any particular language
V1, V2, V3	referring to Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3 - being the base, past and past participle that students typically learn for irregular verbs eg: speak, spoke, spoken
verb	word that describes the subject's action or state and that we can change or conjugate based on tense and person eg: (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin
voice	form of a verb that shows the relation of the subject to the action; there are two voices in English: active, passive
WH-question	question using a WH-word and expecting an answer that is not "yes" or "no"; WH-questions are "open" questions; see also yes-no question eg: Where are you going?
WH-word (also called "question word")	word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words: who, what, where, when, which, why, how
word order	order or sequence in which words occur within a sentence; basic word order for English is subject-verb-object or SVO
yes-no question	question to which the answer is yes or no; yes-no questions are "closed" questions; see also WH-question eg: "Do you like coffee?"
zero conditional	"if-then" conditional structure used when the result of the condition is always true (based on fact) eg: "If you dial O, the operator comes on"

* note that technically English does not have a real future tense
** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to" to be the true infinitive

source :englishclub.com

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